Antimicrobial Resistance in Agricultural Soils: Environmental Pathways, Drivers, Risks, and Mitigation Strategies—An Integrative Review
Keywords:
Agricultural soil, Antimicrobial resistance, Antibiotic resistance genes, Antibiotic-resistant bacteria, Biochar, Manure, wastewater irrigationAbstract
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is increasingly recognized as a critical environmental, medical, and veterinary concern. Agricultural soils play a pivotal role in this dynamic, receiving antibiotics, antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB), and antibiotic-resistance genes (ARGs) via livestock manure, wastewater irrigation, sewage sludge, contaminated fertilizers, and agricultural runoff. While resistance genes occur naturally in soil microbial communities, modern agricultural practices accelerate their abundance, persistence, mobility, and potential transfer to human and animal pathogens. This integrative review synthesizes peer-reviewed literature published primarily between 2010 and 2026 to examine the sources, environmental behavior, drivers, and mitigation strategies of soil-based AMR. Findings indicate that repeated application of contaminated manure substantially increases ARG levels, while untreated wastewater irrigation consistently drives ARB and ARG introduction into cropland. Conversely, the impact of treated wastewater varies depending on treatment efficiency, irrigation intensity, and soil characteristics. Horizontal gene transfer—driven by mobile genetic elements like plasmids and integrons—serves as the main vehicle transferring resistance between environmental organisms and clinical pathogens. Mitigation strategies including composting, anaerobic digestion, advanced wastewater treatment, antimicrobial stewardship, and biochar amendments show promise, though their efficacy depends heavily on environmental context. Ultimately, agricultural soil must be addressed as an active, dynamic component within the One Health AMR framework rather than a passive reservoir. Future efforts should prioritize standardized environmental surveillance, quantitative risk assessment, longitudinal field studies, and integrated interventions that combine reduced antimicrobial use with targeted pollution control and sustainable soil management.
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